Chapter 2 — Nationalism in India

Satyagraha is a concept developed by Mahatma Gandhi meaning 'truth-force' or 'soul-force'. It emphasises non-violent resistance based on truth and appeals to the conscience of the oppressor. Gandhi believed that without seeking vengeance, a satyagrahi could win through non-violence if the cause was just, and that people could be persuaded to see truth instead of being forced to accept it through violence.

The Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in 1919 despite united opposition from Indian members. It gave the British government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. Indians opposed it because it was an unjust law that enabled extreme government repression. Gandhi organised a nationwide satyagraha against it, beginning with a hartal on 6 April 1919.

On 13 April 1919, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. Some came to protest government's repressive measures; others came for the annual Baisakhi fair. General Dyer blocked the exit points and opened fire on the unarmed crowd, killing hundreds. He declared his aim was to 'produce a moral effect' and create terror among satyagrahis. This massacre sparked widespread anger and protests across north Indian towns.

The Non-Cooperation Movement began in January 1921. Based on Gandhi's idea in Hind Swaraj (1909) that British rule existed only because of Indian cooperation, the movement called for Indians to refuse cooperation with the British. Stages included surrender of government titles, boycott of civil services, courts, schools, and foreign goods. The movement incorporated diverse social groups—students, lawyers, merchants, peasants, workers, and tribal peoples—each with their own understanding of swaraj.

Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation because it was consumed by both rich and poor alike and was essential to everyone's diet. The tax on salt and the British government monopoly over its production revealed what Gandhi called 'the most oppressive face of British rule'. This made the salt tax relatable to all classes and allowed everyone to participate in civil disobedience by breaking the salt law.

The Salt March was Gandhi's famous journey from 31 January to 6 April 1930. Accompanied by 78 volunteers, Gandhi walked over 240 miles from his ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi, taking about 24 days at 10 miles per day. Thousands came to hear him along the way. On 6 April, he ceremonially violated British law by manufacturing salt by boiling sea water, marking the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Peasants in different regions interpreted Non-Cooperation in their own ways. In Awadh, led by Baba Ramchandra, peasants demanded reduction of revenue and abolition of begar (forced labour). In Bardoli (1928), Vallabhbhai Patel led a satyagraha against enhancement of land revenue. Tribal peasants in Gudem Hills under Alluri Sitaram Raju wanted to restore traditional forest rights and interpreted swaraj as freedom from colonial restrictions on their livelihoods.

Thousands of women participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement for the first time in their lives, moving out of their homes into public spaces. They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops, and many went to jail. In urban areas these women came from high-caste families; in rural areas from rich peasant households. However, Gandhi believed women's primary duty was to home and family, and for a long time the Congress was reluctant to give women positions of authority.

Dalit leaders were not fully convinced by Gandhi's approach. While Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come without eliminating untouchability and campaigned for dalit entry into temples and public spaces, many dalit leaders wanted political empowerment through reserved seats in institutions and a separate electorate. Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who formed the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Gandhi at the Round Table Conference over this issue, believing political representation was essential for their advancement.

The Poona Pact resulted from a conflict between Gandhi and Dr B.R. Ambedkar at the second Round Table Conference. When the British agreed to Ambedkar's demand for separate electorates for dalits, Gandhi began a fast unto death, believing separate electorates would slow dalit integration into society. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhi's position, and the Poona Pact gave Depressed Classes (later called Schedule Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but these seats were to be voted in by the general electorate.

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